Research Paper on the Impact of Fast Fashion

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The Environmental Impacts of Fast Fashion on Water Quality: A Systematic Review

Department of Biology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3, Canada

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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Academic Editor: Dimitrios E. Alexakis

Received: viii March 2022 / Revised: 18 March 2022 / Accustomed: 25 March 2022 / Published: 29 March 2022

Abstract

The manner industry is the second most polluting manufacture, contributing 8% of all carbon emissions and twenty% of all global wastewater, with an anticipated 50% increase in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. To gain a improve agreement of the state of the academic literature on the ecology impacts of the fast fashion industry, we systematically identified 65 publications from 1996 to November 2021 that were subjected to (i) bibliometric, (ii) text, and (iii) content analysis. We establish that there is a growing inquiry interest surrounding fast fashion and water quality, with 74% of the articles published in the concluding 5 years, and the bulk of publications and citations are from China and European countries. We summarise the evaluation of product processes, such equally carbon and water footprints, along with recycling practices aimed to increase the sustainability of the manner industry. Circular economy, social environmental responsibility, and sustainability governance are key areas for futurity inquiry in this growing field.

ane. Introduction

The product of waste can contribute to a myriad of negative environmental impacts, including decreasing air and water quality. The product of wastewater and cloth waste product from fast fashion is no exception. The wearable and textile industries are peculiarly notorious for contributing to environmental degradation, including greenhouse gas emissions and the generation of wastewater and solid wastes at the diverse stages of product and long supply chains [one,two]. Social factors, such equally the growing middle class, growth of the female workforce, and growing attitudes of individuality, have resulted in room in the market for new styles of vesture that are representative of new identities [three]. As a result, nearly xc percent of the globe'due south habiliment product is outsourced to low- to middle-income countries (LMICs), where these habiliment articles are produced cheaply, at low quality, and are and then sold at low prices for faster product and subsequent consumption [4]. The fast fashion system allows retailers to capitalise on the changes in consumer shopping behaviours, especially at the speed information and trends now have the ability to travel [5]. This business model is dependent on the desire of consumers to stay up to date with the latest fashions, thriving off constant and impulse purchases. Brands now release twice the number of collections in comparison to the pre-2000s or the beginning of the fast fashion era [6]. By keeping both the quality and cost of vesture low, consumer consumption is encouraged, which continuously promotes the early or fast disposal of wear [i].

The United Nations names the way industry equally the second most polluting of all industries, resulting in viii% of all carbon emissions and twenty% of all global wastewater. The way industry is single-handedly responsible for more carbon emissions than international flights and shipping combined and uses most 93 billion cubic metres of water annually [seven]. The growing earth population, combined with fast way, has led to massive increases in material production [8]. Per capita fibre consumption nigh tripled from 1950 to 2008, increasing from iii.7 kg to ten.4 kg per person [9]. From 2007 to 2014, cloth fibre production increased by an additional twenty.ii million tons to 90.viii million tons, and this number is expected to grow by three.7% compounded annually [10]. In 2015, 92 1000000 tons of global fashion waste material was produced and projected to increase by 56 million tons by 2030 [2].

Although the fast mode industry is more often than not criticised for its office in creating hazardous working conditions for its workers in depression- to eye-income countries, information technology is too of import to address the ecology issues that are a event of the growing industry. The mode manufacture consumes copious amounts of water and generates huge amounts of wastewater. As a result, the fashion industry is responsible for the consumption of 79 trillion litres of h2o annually, contributing to about 20% of industrial wastewater [vi].

Although the literature extensively covers topics surrounding h2o treatment options and textile effluents, (i.e., [eleven,12,13]) to our knowledge, a quantitative analysis of the current status of inquiry on the role of the fast manner industry in water quality has not yet been assessed. Our primary objective for this study was to systematically review the literature to place the research already conducted on the textile, garment, and fast fashion industries and their impacts on water quality. From an analysis of 3315 papers, we identified 65 relevant studies in the field by using bibliometric, text, and qualitative content analysis to gain a clearer picture of the state of fast fashion and the effects of this industry on ecology and water degradation.

2. Materials and Methods

There were 4 major steps used in this systematic review (Effigy 1). Beginning, the literature to exist reviewed was identified using a Web of Science (WoS) search tailored to the topic. Search terms that comprehend all other relevant topics under the major umbrella topic were gathered in lodge to curate a comprehensive gear up of articles relevant to the topic of report (e.one thousand., clothing, environs, and garment). The aim was to comport a search that was sufficiently big as to exist comprehensive but also completely centred on the topics at paw. The topic search (TS) choice of Spider web of Science looks up the search terms in the title, abstract, author keywords, and Keywords Plus fields of the Web of Scientific discipline database [14,15]. The search query used for obtaining the main dataset is given below:

(TS) = (Garment OR clothes OR fashion OR textile* OR fabric OR cloth AND TS = (Wastewater or "wastewater" OR water) AND TS = (industr* OR commercial OR sector) AND TS = (environmen* OR climate OR sustainab*).

The search was conducted on 20 October 2021 and resulted in 3315 manufactures to be analysed. Next, the titles and abstracts were screened for relevance to the nature of the review using inclusion and exclusion criteria. Manufactures were excluded if they were unrelated to (fast) style or the textile industry, focused solely on wastewater treatment methods, focused on dyes or did not make some connection between the cloth industry and h2o quality or environmental effects. A total of 47 articles were selected from the Web of Scientific discipline records. An extra xviii were added from the references of the highly cited articles, resulting in a final dataset of 65 manufactures deemed relevant to be analysed. To visualize trends in the number of papers published annually, we plotted the number of publications by year spanning from 1996 to Nov 2021 (Effigy two).

Subsequently, the complete records for these articles were obtained from Web of Scientific discipline, and a bibliometric analysis was performed using the Bibliometrix package in the R statistical environment [16,17]. To gain insight into the patterns in publications, a iii-Field Plot Sankey Diagram (Figure 3) was synthetic using the author land, writer keywords, and source of publication with 10, 10, and 50 items in each field, respectively. This plot summarises the relative importance of topics, the country doing the research, and the journals in which the works were published, using thicker rectangles for greater frequency, and multiple thick inflows and outflows to betoken more connections.

A full text analysis was likewise performed for the 65 documents using R bundle "tidytext' and "tm" [18,19]. For the full text analysis, only the titles, abstracts, keywords, and content of the papers (introduction to conclusion) of the documents were taken while the headers, footers, references, tables and figure captions, acknowledgments, and funding information were removed. Further cleaning of the data for full text analysis was done past removing the stopwords (words such as "its", "an", "the", "for", "that", etc., which do non add together meaning to a judgement), numbers, punctuations, and lowercasing all remaining words. The words "et", "al", "utilise", "used", "tin", "as well", "study", "mgl", "mg", "l", "per", "yr", and "fig" were also removed by further screening of the dataset. A bigram network plot (Figure iv) was synthetic with fifty every bit the minimum occurrence number of any pairs of words to filter out the well-nigh important concepts discussed in the analysed literature.

Finally, the content of the selected studies was analysed for major themes surrounding fast fashion, wastewater contents and characteristics, analyses of wastewater impact, and recommendations to slow fast style and the environmental and water degradation acquired past cloth effluents.

3. Results

3.1. Bibliometric Analysis

The Spider web of Science search command yielded 3315 papers, from which 47 were deemed relevant to the telescopic of the report; an additional 18 papers were added to the study based on what had been previously cited in the literature (Figure i). From the bibliometric analysis, 65 documents were retrieved and spanned from 1996 to November 2021. There is an credible growing interest in fast way and water quality with most of the manuscripts published in recent years; of the 65 manufactures, 48 of them (74%) were published between 2016 and 2021 (Figure 2).

The Periodical of Cleaner Production and H2o Scientific discipline and Engineering science has published the most literature within this field (Figure 3). Authors from Cathay take published the nigh articles in fast fashion and h2o quality deposition, followed past the United Kingdom, the The states, Turkey, and Switzerland, respectively. Sustainability is the central concept explored, followed by interests in water, life cycle cess, textile industry, and h2o footprint. The countries that are the nigh interested in the sustainability of fashion based on their publication records are the United Kingdom, the United States, and Turkey. However, the written report of h2o and way predominantly occurs in China, Belgium, India, and Deutschland, respectively (Figure 3).

3.ii. Text Assay

A bigram network plot was used to visualise the total text word relationships (Figure four). The bigram network plot shows three primary nodes every bit a result of the literature being formed around "textile", "water", and "environmental". It was observed that cloth was connected to "waste," "industry", and "wastewater". The term "water" had the strongest connection with "footprint", and "environmental" with "bear upon(southward)". Direct relationships were observed to exist formed betwixt "circular" and "economic system", "sustainability" and "governance", and "life" and "cycle".

four. Discussion

Through this systematic review, we establish that the negative ecology impacts every bit a result of the fast fashion manufacture are manifested through water consumption, carbon emissions, and free energy footprints, particularly in the use phase of wearable, the saturation of international vesture markets, and an increase in the cease-of-life textile waste material. We observed more than recent research interest in the furnishings of fast fashion on the environment, with 74% of articles published in the last 5 years, although this is all the same a relatively understudied field compared to other stressors on water quality degradation in the world, such as nutrient enrichment, climate change, and land use changes [20,21,22]. The fashion industry not only has consequences for h2o consumption and management merely is besides responsible for depleting other raw materials, such as energy and soil [23]. Here, the term fabric industry is used as information technology relates to the production of both unfinished products, such as yarn, or finished products, such as garments, thus information technology can be assumed information technology is also interchangeable when referencing the fashion industry. The terms "mode manufacture" and "fast manner industry" are used more specifically to identify bug pertaining to finished garments and articles of clothing. Major players in the fast way industry, such as H&M and GAP, accept played big roles in increasing the footprint of the fashion industry through the shortening of fashion cycles [24]. The shortening of fashion cycles generates a abiding gap that remains to exist filled with new ideas and designs, in addition to the abiding demand to go rid of the "quondam" to make space for new. Major topic areas that are emerging in the literature include "sustainability", "material industry", and "h2o footprint". Concepts surrounding sustainability are pervasive throughout the texts as this is the basis for the mitigation of environmental impacts. Beneath, we highlight a few of the predominant areas of study in this rapidly growing field.

four.1. Evaluation of Water Quality, Product Processes, and Products

4.one.1. Water, Carbon, and Energy Footprints

At that place are many sources of pollutants in textile wastewater; wastewater can be produced in agricultural cultivation, feeding animals, cleaning of machines after employ, textile pre-treatment, and wet or laundering processes [25,26]. In full, over 1900 chemicals take been identified that can exist involved in fabric product processes [27]. We constitute that the literature covers the various forms of water footprints, including water alkalinity footprints and water eutrophication footprints, equally a means of analysing the nature of textile effluents. Researchers accept found textile effluents to have higher pH than typically allowed, as well as total suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, and turbidity levels [28,29,30]. In some cases, the physicochemical properties of the wastewater impede its power to biodegrade [31]. It is imperative to take a full understanding of how much freshwater is consumed and how much wastewater is discharged, considering increased h2o scarcity footprints have been observed in some places [25]. The water footprint (WF) is one measure of h2o consumption and pollution by both consumers and producers [32]. The water alkalinisation footprint has been suggested as a method to analyse the high pH of water bodies receiving effluent from the textile industry, which can occur as a result of product processes that use a lot of sodium hydroxide [13,28].

4.1.2. Life Cycle Assessments

We found life wheel assessments (LCA) to be a mutual feature of the literature as a ways of analysing the sustainability or environmental impacts of the processes or products of the textile industry. Though it has been critiqued for not always directly accounting dorsum to the product origin [33], LCAs are believed to exist a useful tool to analyse consumer behaviour, such as the annual utilise and disposal of garments or the sustainable chain direction of products [34,35]. For example, ane LCA constitute that a medium bra receives about 30 wears and 10 washes over its life cycle; this is pretty important to consider as the production requires almost 30 principal raw materials to be imported from various countries to the location in which the bra is sewn together [36].

4.2. Reuse and Recycling

The recycling of wastewater effluents has been explored equally an option to reduce water consumption. The complication of wastewater means that its composition could maybe provide h2o, nutrients, and organic matter to soils [37]. However, not all material companies or factories have wastewater treatment plants, thereby releasing unfiltered and undesirable wastewater into the environs [28]. Sludge has besides been used to make bricks as a means of recycling; even so, the safety of these bricks needs to be studied [28].

The popular retailer H&G had 4.3 billion USD worth of unsold clothing items in 2018 as a result of the rapid pace of the fast fashion industry [38]. This generates large amounts of textile waste material equally but 15–20% is recycled annually; the other 75–80% is deposited in landfills or undergoes incineration [2,24]. In 2015, the United States was responsible for the exportation of over 700 million USD worth of used wearable [iv]. This dumping of wear in African and Asian countries affects those markets, with some countries choosing to ban these imports. In particular, Republic of haiti, the Philippines, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Republic of uganda return tons of used clothing that is sent from N America [24].

Reducing the production of virgin cloth fibres by the utilisation of recycling methods may convalesce some of the ecology impacts of the textile industry [24]. Cloth reuse extends the life wheel of the items by transferring them to different owners under the same or different conditions, creating a market for renting, 2nd-hand shops, and trading. The more than textiles that are recycled or reused, the fewer virgin fibres will exist needed, decreasing the environmental impact [39]. Though textile recycling efforts are beneficial, fibre quality degrades with apply and results by and large in products of equal or lower quality [9,39].

4.three. Regional Interests in Fast Fashion, Water Quality, and Degradation

The findings of this systematic review indicate that there are important relationships between research interests in the field and regional affiliations. In detail, researchers from institutions in Communist china are observed to exist key players in this emerging field. This is particularly of import as Red china is a major player in global consumerism and the fast fashion industry. Cathay solely produces nigh 2.5 billion tons of wastewater annually [10]. China's economy is funded greatly past the textile industry as the nation has been the number one global exporter of textiles and clothing since 1995 [25,40]. In 2016, the land grossed over 963 billion Chinese Yuan equally a issue of its flourishing textile industry [25]. Now, the country faces grave water pollution issues, with about 32% of the land's water facing pollution [32]. In 2015, the textile manufacture accounted for 13% of the 41% percent of wastewater discharge of manufacturing industries [41]. An evaluation of the country'due south material industry h2o footprint indicates that the h2o footprint scarcity (WSF) and water eutrophication footprint (WEF) have increased from 1996 to 2015; fluctuations were observed as a result of various governmental and company interventions [25].

Europe is the almost productive world region contributing research in this field and seems to have the most programs in place to mitigate the harmful effects of the fast fashion industry. European nations seem to focus on the recycling of fabric waste matter and research focused on fast manner and its associated environmental degradation. In Denmark, 50% of disposed textiles are collected for reuse and in Germany, the number is seventy% [39]. In fact, at that place were more papers related to recycling in Sweden than in the United states [39].

4.4. Moving towards a More Sustainable Fashion Industry

4.4.1. Alternate Business Models

Our systematic review highlighted several tools that could exist used to move towards a more sustainable fashion industry, for case, a business model in which society moves from a linear economy, based on a take–make–dispose concept, to a round economy that aims to retain all resource or products in the system for as long equally possible in lodge to reduce end-of-life cloth waste [23]. The circular model optimises the process of reducing waste through the maximal reuse of resources or generating new resources from old materials [24,42]. The product service system has been proposed as a hypothetical possible alternative to the current concern model by reducing the environmental impacts of the fashion industry [1]. This system also would decrease the consumption of resources, such as h2o, by increasing the quality and longevity of manufactured clothing items, in add-on to supporting the inclusion of lending, redesigning, renting, and upgrading practises as means of reducing the quantity of individually owned items [1]. At the aforementioned time, the reduction in energy and resource consumption must exist met with improving the quality of fabric products to extend their lifespan [27].

four.four.2. Slow, Upstanding, and Sustainable Fashion

Ecofashion, upstanding fashion, and sustainable mode all attempt to limit the negative environmental effects that fast fashion models otherwise impose [43]. Each of these industries has slight fundamental differences, where ecofashion is based on designing garments that are better for guild and have decreased effects on the environment, ethical manner based on fair trade and environmental standards, and sustainable fashion focusing on tailoring the clothing life cycle to align with the ideas of sustainable evolution, considering design, material, production weather condition, and the consumer [43]. A summary of the existing measures that the European Union has taken to create more sustainable practises past transitioning from a linear to a circular economy in the fashion industry was provided by [23].

four.iv.3. Alter in Consumer Behaviour

Throughout the literature, many studies have highlighted the importance of changes in consumer behaviour that can greatly decrease environmental impacts [34]. The negative environmental effects of the manner industry do not ho-hum downward post-production. In fact, the garment utilise stage is likewise critical in generating ecology impact, such as through the transportation to retail outlets and the utilise phase [twoscore]. For instance, the weekly laundry of a unmarried household could potentially belch thousands of microfibers, which have been establish to bioaccumulate in albacore, bluefin tuna, fiddler crabs, lugworm, phytoplankton, and swordfish, amongst other forms of marine life, and tin can pb to the disruption of body functions, endocrine systems, and reproductive stress, among other bug [44]. Using machines with high efficiency ratings, lower washing temperatures, air drying, using front loading, and full load machines can reduce the carbon footprint and energy footprint [36,40,45].

The fast fashion model leads consumers to view habiliment as disposable; thus, while the average consumer spends less for twice the corporeality of apparel, a significant amount of textile waste is also being generated, posing a threat to h2o quality. From 2000 to 2015, clothing prices decreased, yet worldwide, clothing production doubled [38]. Social media has been identified as a key marketing tool, moving away from sales assembly in department stores to social media "influencers" who effectively sway fashion trends and brands via constant audios, images, videos, and text. Now, up to 41% of young people await to social media influencers for mode advice, and social media could be used to influence consumer behaviour towards recycling and reusing initiatives [46]. Furthermore, if consumers are able to extend the lives of their garments by ix months, in that location is a possibility of a 22% waste matter reduction and 33% water savings [43].

v. Conclusions

As various socio-cultural and economic factors influence increases in fast manner consumption, information technology is important to identify the associated environmental furnishings both pre- and post-product. We plant that a new field is emerging to bridge the gap between fast mode and cloth industries and the environment, especially water degradation, as at that place are increasingly more papers regarding fast fashion and h2o quality in the peer-reviewed literature. Although there are limits to the availability of published enquiry in this field, the style industry contributes greatly to environmental degradation through h2o consumption, energy consumption, and its carbon footprint. We found that studies have generally covered these topics broadly, leaving room for future research projects. For case, through our bibliometric, text, and content analysis, nosotros identified 3 major emerging phrases that could be further explored in the literature, including "sustainability", "textile industry", and "h2o footprint". We recommend farther inquiry into the evaluation of water footprints, recycling efforts, and methodologies, leading towards a more than sustainable way industry, including a circular economy. Changes in consumer behaviour can lead to changes in the market for fast fashion; thus, we recommend that consumers re-evaluate their consumption habits. In part, this could potentially influence suppliers to practise more sustainable production processes in improver to more than heavily enforced regulations surrounding released discharges and solid waste disposal. Future research efforts documenting the widespread negative impacts of the fashion industry on the environment and the evolution of more sustainable practices will be integral to mitigating carbon emissions and wastewater production.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, Grand.B., A.B. and Southward.Due south.; methodology, K.B. and A.B.; software, K.B. and A.B.; validation, Thousand.B. and A.B.; formal analysis, Grand.B. and A.B.; investigation, One thousand.B. and A.B.; resources, Due south.Southward.; data curation, K.B., A.B. and S.Due south.; writing—original draft preparation, K.B., A.B. and South.S.; writing—review and editing, One thousand.B., A.B. and S.Southward.; visualisation, One thousand.B. and A.B.; supervision, S.S.; projection assistants, South.Due south.; funding acquisition, S.Southward. All authors accept read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the York University Research Chair Programme and Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Discovery Grant Program to S.S.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Argument

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We would like to give thanks Robert Tsushima and Nikola Kovinich for feedback on an earlier draft. We would also similar to extend thanks to all members of the Sharma lab who provided feedback throughout the process, in add-on to the two anonymous referees for their helpful comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure i. Catamenia nautical chart summarising the systematic review process used in this study; this includes the search fundamental for the identification of articles, exclusion criteria, supplemented studies, and subsequent bibliometric, text, and content analyses.

Figure 1. Flow chart summarising the systematic review process used in this study; this includes the search central for the identification of articles, exclusion criteria, supplemented studies, and subsequent bibliometric, text, and content analyses.

Figure 2. Number of articles relating to fast fashion and environmental and water degradation spanning published per year from 1996 to Nov 2021.

Figure two. Number of manufactures relating to fast fashion and environmental and water degradation spanning published per year from 1996 to Nov 2021.

Figure 3. A Sankey diagram (3-field plot) visualisation of the top ten countries leading research in the field by authors, the main research topics (keywords), and the journals that predominantly publish the articles. Thicker rectangles indicate greater frequency. The connecting nodes, inflows, and outflows indicate more connections with more than and thicker nodes.

Figure three. A Sankey diagram (3-field plot) visualisation of the top x countries leading inquiry in the field by authors, the main research topics (keywords), and the journals that predominantly publish the articles. Thicker rectangles indicate greater frequency. The connecting nodes, inflows, and outflows point more connections with more and thicker nodes.

Effigy 4. A bigram network plot of words that co-occur in the literature surrounding fast fashion and water quality based on full text analysis. "Textile" and "water" form the biggest nodes and branch out to other topics that are found throughout the literature. The most prevalent topics are indicated past dark arrows.

Figure 4. A bigram network plot of words that co-occur in the literature surrounding fast manner and h2o quality based on full text analysis. "Textile" and "water" class the biggest nodes and branch out to other topics that are found throughout the literature. The most prevalent topics are indicated by dark arrows.

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